Middle English begins to develop, and literacy begins to spread outside the Church throughout Europe.[1] In addition, churchmen are increasingly willing to take on secular roles. By the end of the century, at least a third of England's bishops also act as royal judges in secular matters.[2]
By the end of the century, both the Capetian Dynasty and the House of Anjou are relying primarily on mercenaries in their militaries. Paid soldiers are available year-round, unlike knights who expected certain periods off to maintain their manor lifestyles.[3]